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jeudi 14 juin 2018

TREVORSHAM

TREVORSHAM


I suppose I had better tell what we had been doing all this time. Adela and I had come out, and had a season or two in London, and my father had enjoyed our pleasure in it, and paid a good deal of court to our pretty Adela, because there was no driving Torwood into anything warmer than easy brotherly companionship.
In fact, Torwood had never cared for anyone but little Emily Deerhurst. Once he had come to her rescue, when she was only nine or ten years old, and her schoolboy cousins were teasing her, and at every Twelfth-day party since she and he had come together as by right. There was something irresistible in her great soft plaintive brown eyes, though she was scarcely pretty otherwise, and we used to call her the White Doe of Rylstone. Torwood was six or seven years older, and no one supposed that he seriously cared for her, till she was sixteen. Then, when my father spoke point blank to him about Adela, he was driven into owning what he wished.
My father thought it utter absurdity. The connection was not pleasant to him; Mrs. Deerhurst was always looked on as a designing widow, who managed to marry off her daughters cleverly, and he could believe no good of Emily.
Now Adela always had more power with papa than any of us. She had a coaxing way, which his stately old-school courtesy never could resist. She used when we were children to beg for holidays, and get treats for us; and even now, many a request which we should never have dared to utter, she could, with her droll arch way, make him think the most sensible thing in the world.
What odd things people can do who have lived together like brothers and sisters! I can hardly help laughing when I think of Torwood coming disconsolately up from the library, and replying, in answer to our vigorous demands, that his lordship had some besotted notion past all reason.
Then we pressed him harder—Adela with indignation, and I with sympathy—till we forced out of him that he had been forbidden ever to think or speak again of Emily, and all his faith in her laughed to scorn, as delusions induced by Mrs. Deerhurst.
"I'm sure I hope you'll take Ormerod, Adela," I remember he ended; "then at least you would be out of the way."
For Sir John Ormerod's courtship was an evident fact to all the family, as, indeed, Adela was heiress enough to be a good deal troubled with suitors, though she had hitherto managed to make them all keep their distance.
Adela laughed at him for his kind wishes, but I could see she meant to plead for him. She had her chance, for Sir John Ormerod brought matters to a crisis at the next ball; and though she thought, as she said, "she had settled him," he followed it up with her guardian, and Adela was invited to a conference in the library.
It happened that as she ran upstairs, all in a glow, she came on Torwood at the landing. She couldn't help saying in her odd half-laughing, half-crying voice—
"It will come right, Torwood; I've made terms, I'm out of your way."
"Not Ormerod!" he exclaimed.
"Oh! no, no!" I can hear her dash of scorn now, for I was just behind my brother, but she went on out of breath—
"You may go on seeing her, provided you don't say a word—till—till she's been out two years."
"Adela! you queen of girls, how have you done it?" he began, but she thrust him aside and flew up into my arms; and when I had her in her own room it came out, I hardly know how, that she had so shown that she cared for no one she had ever seen except my father, that they found they did love each other; and—and—in short they were going to be married.
Really it seemed much less wonderful then than it does in thinking of it afterwards. My father was much handsomer than any young man I ever saw, with a hawk nose, a clear rosy skin, pure pink and white like a boy's, curly little rings of white hair, blue eyes clear and bright as the sky, a tall upright soldierly figure, and a magnificent stately bearing, courteous and grand to all, but sweetly tender to a very few, and to her above all. It always had been so ever since he had brought her home an orphan of six years old from her mother's death-bed at Nice. And he was youthful, could ride or hunt all day without so much fatigue as either of his sons, and was as fresh and eager in all his ways as a lad.
And she, our pretty darling! I don't think Torwood and I in the least felt the incongruity of her becoming our step-mother, only that papa was making her more entirely his own.
I am glad we did not mar the sunshine. It did not last long. She came home thoroughly unwell from their journey to Switzerland, and never got better. By the time the spring had come round again, she was lying in the vault at Trevorsham, and we were trying to keep poor little Alured alive and help my poor father to bear it.
He was stricken to the very heart, and never was the same man again. His age seemed to come upon him all at once; and whereas at sixty-five he had been like a man ten years younger, he suddenly became like one ten years older; and though he never was actually ill, he failed from month to month.
He could not bear the sight or sound of the poor baby. Poor Adela had scarcely lived to hear it was a boy, and all she had said about it was, "Ursula, you'll be his mother." And, oh! I have tried. If love would do it, I think he could not be more even to dear Adela!
What a frail little life it was! What nights and days we had with him; doctors saying that skill could not do it, but care might; and nurses knowing how to be more effective than I could be; yet while I durst not touch him I could not bear not to see him. And I do think I was the first person he began to know.
Meantime, there was a great difference in Torwood. He had been very much of a big boy hitherto. No one but myself could have guessed that he cared for much besides a lazy kind of enjoyment of all the best and nicest things in this world. He did what he was told, but in an uninterested sort of way, just as if politics and county business, and work at the estate, were just as much tasks thrust on him as Virgil and Homer had been; and put his spirit into sporting, &c.
But when he was allowed to think hopefully of Emily, it seemed to make a man of him, and he took up all that he had to do, as if it really concerned him, and was not only a burden laid on him by his father.
And, as my father became less able to exert himself, Torwood came forward more, and was something substantial to lean upon. Dear fellow! I am sure he did well earn the consent he gained at last, though not with much satisfaction, from papa.
Emily had grown into great sweetness and grace, and Mrs. Deerhurst had gone on very well. Of course, people were unkind enough to say, it was only because she had such prey in view as Lord Torwood; but, whatever withheld her, it is certain that Emily only had the most suitable and reasonable pleasures for a young lady, and was altogether as nice, and gentle, and sensible, as could be desired. There never was a bit of acting in her, she was only allowed to grow in what seemed natural to her. She was just one of the nice simple girls of that day, doing her quiet bit of solid reading, and her practice, and her neat little smooth pencil drawing from a print, as a kind of duty to her accomplishments every day; and filling books with neat up-and-down MS. copies of all the poetry that pleased her. Dainty in all her ways, timid, submissive, and as it seemed to me, colourless.
But Fulk taught her Wordsworth, who was his great passion then, and found her a perfect listener to all his Tory hopes, fears, and usages.
Papa could not help liking her when she came to stay with us, after they were engaged, at the end of two years. He allowed that, away from her mother and all her belongings, she would do very well; and she was so pretty and sweet in her respectful fear of him—I might almost say awe—that his graceful, chivalrous courtesy woke up again; and he was beginning absolutely to enjoy her, as she became a little more confident and understood him better.
How well I remember that last evening! I was happier than I had been for weeks about little Alured: the convulsions had quite gone off, the teeth that had caused them were through, and he had been laughing and playing on my lap quite brightly—cooing to his mother's miniature in my locket. He was such an intelligent little fellow for eighteen months! I came down so glad, and it was so pleasant to see Emily, in her white dress, leaning over my father while he had gone so happily into his old delight of showing his prints and engravings; and Torwood, standing by the fire, watching them with the look of a conqueror, and Jaquetta—like the absurd child she loved to be—teasing them with ridiculous questions about their housekeeping.
They were to have Spinney Lawn bought for them, just a mile away, and the business was in hand. Jacquey was enquiring whether there was a parlour for The Cid, Torwood's hunter, whom she declared was as dear to him as Emily herself. Indeed, Emily did go out every morning after breakfast to feed him with bread. I can see her now on Torwood's arm, with big Rollo and little Malta rolling over one another after them.
Then came an afternoon when we had all walked to Spinney Lawn, laid out the gardens together, and wandered about the empty rooms, planning for them. The birds were singing in the March sunshine, and the tomtits were calling "peter" in the trees, and Jaquetta went racing about after the dogs, like a thing of seven years old, instead of seventeen. And Torwood was cutting out a root of primroses, leaves and all, for Emily, when we saw a fly go along the lane, and wondered, with a sort of idle wonder. We supposed it must be visitors for the parsonage, and so we strolled home, looking for violets by the way, and Jaquetta getting shiny studs of celandine. Ah! I remember those glistening stars were all closed before we came back.
Well, it must come, so it is silly to linger! There stood the fly at the hall-door, and the butler met us, saying—
"There's a person with his lordship, my lord. She would not wait till you came in, though I told her he saw no one on business without you—"
Torwood hastened on before this, expecting to see some importunate person bothering my father with a petition. What he did see was my father leaning back in his chair, with a white, confounded, bewildered look, and a woman, with a child on her lap, opposite. Her back was to the door, and Torwood's first impression was that she was a well-dressed impostor threatening him; so he came quickly to my father's side, and said—
"What is it father? I'm here."
My poor father put out his hand feebly to him, and said—
"It is all true, Torwood. God forgive me; I did not know it!"
"Know what?" he asked anxiously. "What is it that distresses you, father? Let me speak to this person—"
Then she broke out—not loud, not coarsely, but very determinately—"No, sir; you would be very glad to suppress me, and my child, and my evidence, no doubt; but the Earl of Trevorsham has acknowledged the truth of my claim, and I will not leave this spot till he has acknowledged my mother as his only lawful wife, and my child, Trevor Lea, as his only lawful heir!"
Torwood thought her insane and only said quietly, as he offered my father his arm, "I will talk it over with you presently; Lord Trevorsham is not equal to discuss it now."
"I see what you mean!" she said quickly. "You would like to make me out crazy, but Lord Trevorsham knows better. Do not you, my father?" she said, with a strong emphasis, the more marked, because it was concentrated, not loud.
My poor father was shuddering all over with involuntary trembling; but he put Torwood's hand away from him, and looked up piteously, as if his heart was breaking (as it was); but he spoke steadily. "It is true. It is true, Torwood. I was married to poor Faith, when I was a young man, in Canada. They sent me proofs that all had perished when the Indians attacked the village; but—" and then he put his hands over his face. It must have been dreadful to see; but Hester Lea was too much bent on her rights to feel a moment's pity; and she spoke on in a hard tone, with her eyes fixed on my brother's face.
"But you failed to discover that she was rescued from the Indians; gave birth to me, your daughter, Hester; and only died two years ago."
"You hear! My boy, my poor boy, forgive me; don't leave me to her," was what my poor father had said—he who had been so strong.
My brother saw what it all meant now. "Never fear that, sir," he said; "I am your son still, any way, you know."
"You will do justice to me," she began, in her fierce tone; but my brother met it calmly with, "Certainly, we will do our best that justice should be done. You have brought proof?"
His quietness overawed her, and she pointed to the papers on the table. They were her mother's attested narrative, and the certificate of her burial.
My brother read aloud, "The 3rd of February, 1836," then he turned to my father and said, "You observe, father, the difference this may make, if true, is that of putting little Alured into the place I have held. My father's last marriage was on the 15th of April, 1836," he added to her. He says she quite glared at him with mortification, as if he had invented poor little Alured on purpose to baffle her; but my father breathed more freely.
"And is nothing—nothing to be done for my child, your own grandson?" exclaimed she, "after these years."
Torwood silenced her by one of his looks. "We only wish to do justice," he said. "If it be as you say, you will have a right to a great deal, and it will not be disputed; but you must be aware that a claim made in this manner requires investigation, and you can see that my father is not in a state for an exciting discussion."
"Your father!" she said, with a bitter tone of scorn; but he took it firmly, though the blood seemed to come boiling to his temples.
"Yes," he said, "my father! and if you are indeed his daughter, you should show some pity and filial duty, by not forcing the discussion on him while he can so little bear it."
That staggered her a little, but she said, "I do not wish to do him any harm, but I have my child's interests to think of. How do I know what advantage may be taken against him?"
Torwood saw my father lying back in the chair, trembling, and he dreaded a fit every moment.
"I give you my word," he said, "that no injustice shall be done you;" and as she looked keenly at him, as if she distrusted him, he said, "Yes, you may trust me. I was bred an English gentleman, whatever I was born, and I promise you never to come between you and your rights, when your identity as Lord Trevorsham's daughter is fully established. Meantime, do you not see that your presence is killing him? Tell me where you may be heard of?"
"I shall stay at the Shinglebay Hotel till I am secure of the justice I claim," she said. "Come, my boy, since your own grandfather will not so much as look at you."
Torwood walked her across the hall. He was a little touched by those last words, and felt that she might have looked for a daughter's reception, so he said in the hall—
"You must remember this is a very sudden shock to us all. When my father has grown accustomed to the idea, no doubt he will wish to see you again; but in his present state of health, he must be our first consideration. And unprepared as my sisters are, it would be impossible to ask you to stay in the house."
She was always a little subdued by my brother's manner; I think its courtesy and polish almost frightened her, high-spirited, resolute woman as she was.
"I understand," she said, with a stiff, cold tone. Jaquetta heard the echo of it, and wondered.
"But," he added, "when they understand all, and when my father is equal to it, you shall be sent for."
When he went back to the library he found my poor father unconscious. It was really only fainting then, and he came round without anyone being called, and he shrank from seeing anyone but Torwood, explaining to him most earnestly how, though he was too ill himself to go to the place, his brother-officer, General Poyntz, had done so for him, and had been persuaded that the whole settlement and all the inhabitants had been swept off. It was such a shock to him that it nearly killed him. Poor father! it was grievous to hear him wish it had quite done so!
We only knew that the woman had upset my father very much, and that Torwood could not leave him. Word was sent us to sit down to dinner without them, and Torwood sent for some gravy soup and some wine for him. He went on talking—sometimes about us, but more often about poor Faith, who seemed to have come back on him in all the beauty and charm of his first love. He seemed to be talking himself feverish, and after a time Torwood thought that silence would be better for him; so he got him to go to bed, and sent good old Blake, the butler, who had been his servant in the army, to sit in the dressing-room. Blake, it turned out, had known all about the old story, so he was a safe person. Not that safety mattered much. "Lady Hester Lea"—she called herself so now, as, indeed, she had every right—was making it known at Shinglebay.
So Torwood came out. I was very anxious, of course, and had been hovering about on the nursery stairs, where I had gone to see whether baby was quietly asleep, and I overtook him as he was going down-stairs.
"How is papa?" I asked.
I shall never forget the white look of the face he raised up to mine as he said, "Poor father! Ursula, I can only call the news terrible. Will you try to stand up against it bravely?"
And then he held out his arms and gathered me into them, and I believe I said, "I can bear anything when you do that!"
I thought it could only be something about Bertram, who had rather a way of getting into scrapes, and I said his name; but just as Fulk was setting me at ease on that score, Jaquetta, who was on the watch, too, opened the door of the green drawing-room, and we were obliged to go in. Then, hardly answering her and Emily, as they asked after papa, he stood straight up in the middle of the rug and told us, beginning with—"Ursula, did you know that our father had been married as a young man in Canada?"
No. We had never guessed it.
"He was," my brother went on, "This is his daughter."
"Our sister!" Jaquetta asked. "Where has she been all this time?"
But I saw there must be more to trouble him, and then it came. "I cannot tell. My father had every reason to believe that—she—his first wife—had been killed in a massacre by the Red Indians; but if what this person says is true, she only died two years ago. But it was in all good faith that he married our mother. He had taken all means to discover—"
Even then we did not perceive what this involved. I felt stunned and numbed chiefly from seeing the great shock it had been to my father and to him; but poor little Jaquetta and Emily were altogether puzzled; and Jaquetta said, "But is this sister of ours such a very disagreeable person, Torwood? Why didn't you bring her in and show her to us?"
Then he exclaimed, almost angrily at her simplicity, "Good heavens! girls, don't you see what it all means? If this is true, I am not Torwood. We are nothing—nobody—nameless."
He turned to the fire, put both elbows on the mantelshelf, and hid his face in his hands. Emily sprang up, and tried to draw down his arm; and she did, but he only used it to put her from him, hold her off at arm's length, and look at her—oh! with such a tender face of firm sorrow!
"Ah! Emily," he said; "you too! It has been all on false pretences! That will have to be all over now."
Then Emily's great brown eyes grew bigger with wonder and dismay.
"False pretences!" she cried, "what false pretences? Not that you cared for me, Torwood."
"Not that I cared for you," he said, with a suppressed tone that made his voice so deep! "Not that I cared, but that Lord Torwood did—Torwood is the baby upstairs."
"But it is you—you—you—Fulk!" said Emily, trying to creep and sidle up to him, white doe fashion. I believe nobody had ever called him by his Christian name before, and it made it sweeter to him, but still he did not give in.
"Ah! that's all very well," he said, and his voice was softer then, "but what would your mother say?"
"The same as I do," said Emily, undauntedly. "How should it change one's feelings one bit," and she almost cried at being held back.
He did let her nestle up to him then, but with a sad sort of smile. "My child, my darling," he said, "I ought not to allow this! It will only be the worse after!"
But just then a servant's step made them start back, and a message came and brought word that Mr. Blake would be glad if Lord Torwood would step up.
Yes, my poor father was wandering in his speech, and very feverish, mixing up Adela and Faith Le Blanc strangely together sometimes, and at others fancying he was lying ill with his wound, and sending messages to Faith.
We sent for the doctor, but he could not do anything really. It had been a death-blow, though the illness lasted a full week. He knew us generally, and liked to see us, but he always had the sense that something dreadful had happened to us; and he would stroke my hand or Jaquetta's, and pity us. He was haunted, too, by the sense that he ought to do something for us which he could not do. We thought he meant to make a will, securing us something, but he was never in a condition in which my brother would have felt justified in getting him to sign it. Indeed there was so little disease about him, and we thought he would get better, if only we could keep him free from distress and excitement; so we made his room as quiet as possible, and discouraged his talking or thinking.
Lady Hester came every day. My brother had sent for Mr. Eagles, our solicitor, to meet her the first time, and look at her papers.
He said he could not deny that it looked very bad for us. Of the original marriage there was no doubt; indeed, my father had told Torwood where to find the certificate of it, folded up in the secret drawer of his desk, with his commission in the army; and the register of Faith's burial was only too plain. The only chance there was for us was, that her identity could not be established; but Mr. Eagles did not think it would go off on this. The whole of her life seemed to be traceable; besides, there was something about Hester that forbade all suspicion of her being a conscious impostor. Whether she would be able to prove herself my father's daughter was another more doubtful point. That, however, made no difference, except as to her own rank and fortune. If the first wife were proved to have been alive till 1836, then little Alured was the only true heir to the title and estate, and, next after him, stood Hester Lea and her son.
People said she was like the family; I never could see it, and always thought the likeness due to their imagination. She took one by surprise. She was a tall, well-made woman, with a narrow waist, and a proud, peculiarly upright bearing, though quick, almost sharp in all her movements, and especially with her eyes. Those eyes, I confess, always startled me. They were clear, bright blue, well opened eyes—honest eyes one would have called them—only they appeared to be always searching about, and darting at one when one least expected it. The red and white of the face too always had a clear hard look, like the eyes; the teeth projected a little, and were so very, very white, that they always seemed to me to flash like the eyes; and if ever she smiled, it was as much as to say, "I don't believe you." Her nose had an amount of hook, too, that always gave me the feeling of having a wild hawk in the room with me. Jaquetta used to call her a panther of the wilderness, but to my mind there was none of the purring cattish tenderness of the panther. However, that might be only because she viewed us as her natural enemies, and was always on her guard against us, though I do not well know why; I am sure we only wanted to know the truth and do justice, and Fulk was so convinced that she would prove her case, and that there was no help for it, that at the end of hearing Mr. Eagles question her, he said, "Well, the matter must be tried in due time, but since we are brothers and sisters, let us be friendly," and he held out his hand to her. Mr. Eagles, who told me, said he could have beaten him for the imprudent admission, only he did look so generous and sweet and sad; and Lady Hester drew herself up doubtfully and proudly, as if she could hardly bear to own such a brother, but she did take his hand, coldly though, and saying, "Let me see my father."
He was obliged to tell her that this was impossible. I doubt whether she ever believed him—at least she used to gaze at him with her determined eyes, as if she meant to abash him out of falsehood, and she sharply questioned every one about Lord Trevorsham's state.
The determination to be friendly made my brother offer to take her to us. She consented, but not very readily, and I am afraid we were needlessly cold and dry; but we were taken by surprise when my brother brought her into the sitting-room. It was not very easy to welcome the woman who was going to turn us all out, and under such a stigma; and she—she could hardly be expected to look complacently at the interlopers who had her place, and the title she had a right to.
She put us through her hard catechism about my dear father's state, and said at last that she should like to see Lord Torwood.
Taken by surprise, we looked and signed towards him whom that name had always meant. He smiled a little and said, "Little Alured! But, remember, I am bound to concede nothing till judicial minds are convinced. The parties concerned cannot judge. Can you venture to have Baby down, Ursula?"
No, I did not venture. I thought it might have been averted; but I was only obliged to take her up to the nurseries. On the way up she asked which way my father's room lay. I answered, "Oh! across there;" I did not know if she might not make a dash at it.
I think she must have heard at Shinglebay how delicate poor little Alured was, and thence gathered hopes of the succession for her boy, for she asked her sharp questions about his health all the way up, and knew that he had had fits. I could not put her down as one generally can inquisitive people. I suppose it was because she was more sensible of the difference in our real positions than I have as yet felt.
Baby was asleep; and I think she was touched by the actual sight of him. She said he was very like her boy; and though I supposed that a mere assertion at the time, it was quite true. Alured and Trevor Lea have always been remarkably alike. However, she cross-examined Nurse about his health even more minutely, and then took her leave; but she came again every day, walking after the first, as long as my dear father lived.
And she must have talked, for there came a kind of feeling over everyone, as well as ourselves, that something was hanging over us, of which the issue would be known when my father's illness took some turn.
Mr. Decies came every day to inquire, but I could not bear a strange eye, and Hester might have been looking on. I was steeling myself against him. Was I right?—oh! was I right? I have wondered and grieved! For I knew well enough what he had been thinking of for months before; only I did not want it to come to a point. How was I to leave little Alured to Jaquetta? or disturb my father by breaking up his home? I liked him on the whole, and had come the length of thinking that if I ever married at all, it would be— But that's all nonsense; and mine could not have been what other people's love was, or I should not have shrunk from the sight and look of him. If it had been only poverty that was coming, it would have been a different thing; but to be nameless impostors!
Mrs. Deerhurst had gone out on a round of visits, when Emily came to us, taking her younger daughter. They were not a very letter-writing family. It is odd how some people's pen is a real outlet of expression; while others seem to lack the nerve that might convey their thoughts to it, even when they live in more sympathy than Emily could well have had with her mother.
At least, so I understand, what afterwards we wondered at, that Emily never mentioned Hester; only saying, when, after some days she did write, that Lord Trevorsham was ill.
So Fulk had the one comfort of being with her when he was out of the sick room. I used to see them from the window walking up and down the terrace in the blue east wind haze of those March days, never that I could see speaking. I don't think my brother would have felt it honourable to tie one additional link between himself and her. He had not a doubt as to how her mother would act, but to be in her dear little affectionate presence was a better help than we could give him, even though nothing passed between them.
Jaquetta used to wonder at them, and then try to go on the same as usual; and would wander about the garden and park with her dogs, and bring us in little anecdotes, and do all the laughing over them herself. Poor child! she felt as if she were in a bad dream, and these were efforts to shake it off, and wake herself.
After all, nothing was ever so bad as those ten days! But, my brother always said he was thankful for the respite and time for thought which they gave him.

THE SCIENCE OF LIGHT-PRODUCTION

THE SCIENCE OF LIGHT-PRODUCTION


In previous chapters much of the historical development of artificial lighting has been presented and several subjects have been traced to the modern period which marks the beginning of an intensive attack by scientists upon the problems pertaining to the production of efficient and adequate light-sources. Many historical events remain to be touched upon in later chapters, but it is necessary at this point for the reader to become acquainted with certain general physical principles in order that he may read with greater interest some of the chapters which follow. It is seen that from a standpoint of artificial lighting, the "dark age" extended well into the nineteenth century. Oil-lamps and gas-lighting began to be seriously developed at the beginning of the last century, but the pioneers gave attention chiefly to mechanical details and somewhat to the chemistry of the fuels. It was not until the science of physics was applied to light-sources that rapid progress was made.
All the light-sources used throughout the ages, and nearly all modern ones, radiate light by virtue of the incandescence of solids or of solid particles and it is an interesting fact that carbon is generally the solid which emits light. This is due to various physical characteristics of carbon, the chief one being its extremely high melting-point. However, most practicable light-sources of the past and present may be divided into two general classes: (1) Those in which solids or solid particles are heated by their own combustion, and (2) those in which the solids are heated by some other means. Some light-sources include both principles and some perhaps cannot be included under either principle without qualification. The luminous flames of burning material such as those of wood-splinters, candles, oil-lamps, and gas-jets, and the glowing embers of burning material appear in the first class; and incandescent gas-mantles, electric filaments, and arc-lamps to some extent are representative of the second class. Certain "flaming" arcs involve both principles, but the light of the firefly, phosphorescence, and incandescent gas in "vacuum" tubes cannot be included in this simplified classification. The status of these will become clear later.
It has been seen that flames have been prominent sources of artificial light; and although of low luminous efficiency, they still have much to commend them from the standpoints of portability, convenience, and subdivision. The materials which have been burned for light, whether solid or liquid, are rich in carbon, and the solid particles of carbon by virtue of their incandescence are responsible for the brightness of a flame. A jet of pure hydrogen gas will burn very hot but with so low a brightness as to be barely visible. If solid particles are injected into the flame, much more light usually will be emitted. A gas-burner of the Bunsen type, in which complete combustion is obtained by mixing air in proper proportions with the gas, gives a hot flame which is of a pale blue color. Upon the closing of the orifice through which air is admitted, the flame becomes bright and smoky. The flame is now less hot, as indicated by the presence of smoke or carbon particles, and combustion is not complete. However, it is brighter because the solid particles of carbon in passing upward through the flame become heated to temperatures at which they glow and each becomes a miniature source of light.
A close observer will notice that the flame from a match, a candle, or a gas-jet, is not uniformly bright. The reader may verify this by lighting a match and observing the flame. There is always a bluish or darker portion near the bottom. In this less luminous part the air is combining with the hydrogen of the hydrocarbon which is being vaporized and disintegrated. Even the flame of a candle or of a burning splinter is a miniature gas-plant, for the solid or liquid hydrocarbons are vaporized before being burned. Owing to the incoming colder air at this point, the flame is not hot enough for complete combustion. The unburned carbon particles rise in its draft and become heated to incandescence, thus accounting for the brighter portion. In cases of complete combustion they are eventually oxidized into carbon dioxide before they are able to escape. If a piece of metal be held in the flame, it immediately becomes covered with soot or carbon, because it has reduced the temperature below the point at which the chemical reaction—the uniting of carbon with oxygen—will continue. An ordinary flat gas-flame of the "bats-wing" type may vary in temperature in its central portion from 300°F. at the bottom to about 3000°F. at the top. The central portion lies between two hotter layers in which the vertical variation is not so great. The brightness of the upper portion is due to incandescent carbon formed in the lower part.
When scientists learned by exploring flames that brightness was due to the radiation of light by incandescent solid matter, the way was open for many experiments. In the early days of gas-lighting investigations were made to determine the relation of illuminating value to the chemical constitution of the gas. The results combined with a knowledge of the necessity for solid carbon in the flame led to improvements in the gas for lighting purposes. Gas rich in hydrocarbons which in turn are rich in carbon is high in illuminating value. Heating-effect depends upon heat-units, so the rating of gas in calories or other heat-units per cubic foot is wholly satisfactory only for gas used for heating. The chemical constitution is a better indicator of illuminating value.
As scientific knowledge increased, efforts were made to get solid matter into the flames of light-sources. Instead of confining efforts to the carbon content of the gas, solid materials were actually placed in the flame, and in this manner various incandescent burners were developed. A piece of lime placed in a hydrogen flame or that of a Bunsen burner is seen to become hot and to glow brilliantly. By producing a hotter flame by means of the blowpipe, in which hydrogen and oxygen are consumed, the piece of lime was raised to a higher temperature and a more intense light was obtained. In Paris there was a serious attempt at street-lighting by the use of buttons of zirconia heated in an oxygen-coal-gas flame, but it proved unsuccessful owing to the rapid deterioration of the buttons. This was the line of experimentation which led to the development of the lime-light. The incandescent burner was widely employed, and until the use of electricity became common the lime-light was the mainstay for the stage and for the projection of lantern slides. It is in use even to-day for some purposes. The origin of the phrase "in the lime-light" is obvious. The luminous intensity of the oxyhydrogen lime-light as used in practice was generally from 200 to 400 candle-power. The light decreases rapidly as the burner is used, if a new surface of lime is not presented to the flame from time to time. At the high temperatures the lime is somewhat volatile and the surface seems to change in radiating power. Zirconium oxide has been found to serve better than lime.
Improvements were made in gas-burners in order to obtain hotter flames into which solid matter could be introduced to obtain bright light. Many materials were used, but obviously they were limited to those of a fairly high melting-point. Lime, magnesia, zirconia, and similar oxides were used successfully. If the reader would care to try an experiment in verification of this simple principle, let him take a piece of magnesium ribbon such as is used in lighting for photography and ignite it in a Bunsen flame. If it is held carefully while burning, a ribbon of ash (magnesia) will be obtained intact. Placing this in the faintly luminous flame, he will be surprised at the brilliance of its incandescence when it has become heated. The simple experiment indicates the possibilities of light-production in this direction. Naturally, metals of high melting-point such as platinum were tried and a network of platinum wire, in reality a platinum mantle, came into practical use in about 1880. The town of Nantes was lighted by gas-burners using these platinum-gauze mantles, but the mantles were unsuccessful owing to their rapid deterioration. This line of experimentation finally bore fruit of immense value for from it the gas-mantle evolved.
A group of so-called "rare-earths," among which are zirconia, thoria, ceria, erbia, and yttria (these are oxides of zirconium, etc.) possess a number of interesting chemical properties some of which have been utilized to advantage in the development of modern artificial light. They are white or yellowish-white oxides of a highly refractory character found in certain rare minerals. Most of them are very brilliant when heated to a high temperature. This latter feature is easily explained if the nature of light and the radiating properties of substances are considered. Suppose pieces of different substances, for example, glass and lime, are heated in a Bunsen flame to the same temperature which is sufficiently great to cause both of them to glow. Notwithstanding the identical conditions of heating, the glass will be only faintly luminous, while the piece of lime will glow brilliantly. The former is a poor radiator; furthermore, the lime radiates a relatively greater percentage of its total energy in the form of luminous energy.
The latter point will become clearer if the reader will refresh his memory regarding the nature of light. Any luminous source such as the sun, a candle flame, or an incandescent lamp is sending forth electromagnetic waves not unlike those used in wireless telegraphy excepting that they are of much shorter wave-length. The eye is capable of recording some of these waves as light just as a receiving station is tuned to record a range of wave-lengths of electromagnetic energy. The electromagnetic waves sent forth by a light-source like the sun are not all visible, that is, all of them do not arouse a sensation of light. Those that do comprise the visible spectrum and the different wave-lengths of visible radiant energy manifest themselves by arousing the sensations of the various spectral colors. The radiant energy of shortest wave-length perceptible by the visual apparatus excites the sensation of violet and the longest ones the sensation of deep red. Between these two extremes of the visible spectrum, the chief spectral colors are blue, green, yellow, orange, and red in the order of increasing wave-lengths. Electromagnetic energy radiated by a light-source in waves of too great wave-length to be perceived by the eye as light is termed as a class "infra-red radiant energy." Those too short to be perceived as light are termed as a class "ultraviolet radiant energy." A solid body at a high temperature emits electro-magnetic energy of all wave-lengths, from the shortest ultra-violet to the longest infra-red.
Another complication arises in the variation in visibility or luminosity of energy of wave-lengths within the range of the visible spectrum. Obviously, no amount of energy incapable of exciting the sensation of light will be visible. The energy of those wave-lengths near the ends of the visible spectrum will be inefficient in producing light. That energy which excites the sensation of yellow-green produces the greatest luminosity per unit of energy and is the most efficient light. The visibility or luminous efficiency of radiant energy may be ranged approximately in this manner according to the colors aroused: yellow-green, yellow, green, orange, blue-green, red, blue, deep red, violet.
Newton, an English scientist, first described the discovery of the visible spectrum and this is of such fundamental importance in the science of light that the first paragraph of his original paper in the "Transactions of the Royal Society of London" is quoted as follows:
In the Year 1666 (at which time I applied my self to the Grinding of Optick Glasses of other Figures than Spherical) I procured me a Triangular Glass-Prism, to try therewith the celebrated Phaenomena of Colours. And in order thereto, having darkened my Chamber, and made a small Hole in my Window-Shuts, to let in a convenient Quantity of the Sun's Light, I placed my Prism at its Entrance, that it might be thereby refracted to the opposite Wall. It was at first a very pleasing Divertisement, to view the vivid and intense Colours produced thereby; but after a while applying my self to consider them more circumspectly, I became surprised to see them in an oblong Form; which, according to the receiv'd Law of Refractions, I expected should have been circular. They were terminated at the Sides with streight Lines, but at the Ends the Decay of Light was so gradual, that it was difficult to determine justly what was the Figure, yet they seemed Semicircular.
Even Newton could not have had the faintest idea of the great developments which were to be based upon the spectrum.
Now to return to the peculiar property of rare-earth oxides—namely, their unusual brilliance when heated in a flame—it is easy to understand the reason for this. For example, when a number of substances are heated to the same temperature they may radiate the same amount of energy and still differ considerably in brightness. Many substances are "selective" in their absorbing and radiating properties. One may radiate more luminous energy and less infra-red energy, and for another the reverse may be true. The former would appear brighter than the latter. The scientific worker in light-production has been searching for such "selective" radiators whose other properties are satisfactory. The rare-earths possess the property of selectivity and are fortunately highly refractory. Welsbach used these in his mantle, whose efficiency is due partly to this selective property. Recent work indicates that much higher efficiencies of light-production are still attainable by the principles involved in the gas-mantle.
Turning again to flames, another interesting physical phenomenon is seen on placing solutions of different chemical salts in the flame. For example, if a piece of asbestos is soaked in sodium chloride (common salt) and is placed in a Bunsen flame, the pale-blue flame suddenly becomes luminous and of a yellow color. If this is repeated with other salts, a characteristic color will be noted in each case. The yellow flame is characteristic of sodium and if it is examined by means of a spectroscope, a brilliant yellow line (in fact, a double line) will be seen. This forms the basis of spectrum analysis as applied in chemistry.
Every element has its characteristic spectrum consisting usually of lines, but the complexity varies with the elements. The spectra of elements also exhibit lines in the ultra-violet region which may be studied with a photographic plate, with a photo-electric cell, and by other means. Their spectral lines or bands also extend into the infra-red region and here they are studied by means of the bolometer or other apparatus for detecting radiant energy by the heat which it produces upon being absorbed. Spectrum analysis is far more sensitive than the finest weighing balance, for if a grain of salt be dissolved in a barrel of water and an asbestos strip be soaked in the water and held in a Bunsen flame, the yellow color characteristic of sodium will be detectable. A wonderful example of the possibilities of this method is the discovery of helium in the sun before it was found on earth! Its spectral lines were detected in the sun's spectrum and could not be accounted for by any known element. However, it should be stated that the spectrum of an element differs generally with the manner obtained. The electric spark, the arc, the electric discharge in a vacuum tube, and the flame are the means usually employed.
The spectrum has been dwelt upon at some length because it is of great importance in light-production and probably will figure strongly in future developments. Although in lighting little use has been made of the injection of chemical salts into ordinary flames, it appears certain that such developments would have risen if electric illuminants had not entered the field. However, the principle has been applied with great success in arc-lamps. In the first arc-lamps plain carbon electrodes were used, but in some of the latest carbon-arcs, electrodes of carbon impregnated with various salts are employed. For example, calcium fluoride gives a brilliant yellow light when used in the carbons of the "flame" arc. These are described in detail later.
Following this principle of light-production the vacuum tubes were developed. Crookes studied the light from various gases by enclosing them in a tube which was pumped out until a low vacuum was produced. On connecting a high voltage to electrodes in each end, an electrical discharge passed through the residual gas making it luminous. The different gases show their characteristic spectra and their desirability as light-producers is at once evident.
However, the most general principle of light-production at the present time is the radiation of bodies by virtue of their temperature. If a piece of wire be heated by electricity, it will become very hot before it becomes luminous. At this temperature it is emitting only invisible infra-red energy and has an efficiency of zero as a producer of light. As it becomes hotter it begins to appear red, but as its temperature is raised it appears orange, until if it could be heated to the temperature of the sun, about 10,000°F., it would appear white. All this time its luminous efficiency is increasing, because it is radiating not only an increasing percentage of visible radiant energy but an increasing amount of the most effective luminous energy. But even when it appears white, a large amount of the energy which it radiates is invisible infra-red and ultra-violet, which are ineffective in producing light, so at best the substance at this high temperature is inefficient as a light-producer.
In this branch of the science of light-production substances are sought not only for their high melting-point, but for their ability to radiate selectively as much visible energy as possible and of the most luminous character. However, at best the present method of utilizing the temperature radiation of hot bodies has limitations.
The luminous efficiencies of light-sources to-day are still very low, but great advances have been made in the past half-century. There must be some radical departures if the efficiency of light-production is to reach a much higher figure. A good deal has been said of the firefly and of phosphorescence. These light-sources appear to emit only visible energy and, therefore, are efficient as radiators of luminous radiant energy. But much remains to be unearthed concerning them before they will be generally applicable to lighting. If ultra-violet radiation is allowed to impinge upon a phosphorescent material, it will glow with a considerable brightness but will be cool to the touch. A substance of the same brightness by virtue of its temperature would be hot; hence phosphorescence is said to be "cold" light.
An acquaintance with certain terms is necessary if the reader is to understand certain parts of the text. The early candle gradually became a standard, and uniform candles are still satisfactory standards where high accuracy is not required. Their luminous intensity and illuminating value became units just as the foot was arbitrarily adopted as a unit of length. The intensity of other light-sources was represented in terms of the number of candles or fraction of a candle which gave the same amount of light. But the luminous intensity of the candle was taken only in the horizontal direction. In the same manner the luminous intensities of light-sources until a short time ago were expressed in candles as measured in a certain direction. Incandescent lamps were rated in terms of mean horizontal candles, which would be satisfactory if the luminous intensity were the same in all directions, but it is not. Therefore, the candle-power in one direction does not give a measure of the total light-output.
If a source of light has a luminous intensity of one candle in all directions, the illumination at a distance of one foot in any direction is said to be a foot-candle. This is the unit of illumination intensity. A lumen is the quantity of light which falls on one square foot if the intensity of illumination is one foot-candle. It is seen that the area of a sphere with a radius of one foot is 4p or 12.57 square feet; therefore, a light-source having a luminous intensity of one candle in all directions emits 12.57 lumens. This is the satisfactory unit, for it measures total quantity of light, and luminous efficiencies may be expressed in terms of lumens per watt, lumens per cubic foot of gas per hour, etc.
Of course, the efficiencies of light-sources are usually of interest to the consumer if they are expressed in terms of cost. But from a practical point of view there are many elements which combine to make another important factor, namely, satisfactoriness. Therefore, the efficiency of artificial lighting from the standpoint of the consumer should be the ratio of satisfactoriness to cost. However, the scientist is interested chiefly in the efficiency of the light-source which may be expressed in lumens per watt, or the amount of light obtained from a given rate of consumption or of emission of energy. This method of rating light-sources penalizes those radiating considerable energy which does not produce the sensation of light or which at best is of wave-lengths that are inefficient in this respect. That radiant energy which is wholly of a wave-length of maximum visibility, or, in other words, excites the sensation of yellow-green, is the most efficient in producing luminous sensation. Of course, no illuminants are available which approach this theoretical ideal and it is not likely that this would be a practical ideal. Under monochromatic yellow-green light the magical drapery of color would disappear and the surroundings would be a monochrome of shades of this hue. Having no colors with which to contrast this color, the world would be colorless. This should be obvious when it is considered that an object which is red under an illuminant containing all colors such as sunlight would be black or dark gray under monochromatic yellow-green light. The red under present conditions is kept alive by contrast with other colors, because the latter live by virtue of the fact that most of our present illuminants contain their hues. It is assumed that the reader knows that a red object, for example, appears red because it reflects (or transmits) red rays and absorbs the other rays in the illuminant. In other words, color is due to selective absorption reflection, or transmission.
Perhaps the ideal illuminant, which is most generally satisfactory for general activities, is a white light corresponding to noon sunlight. If this is chosen as the scientific ideal, the illuminants of the present time are much more "efficient" than if the most efficient light is the ideal.
The luminous efficiency of the radiant energy most efficient in producing the sensation of light (yellow-green) is about 625 lumens per watt. That is, if energy of this wave-length alone were radiated by a hypothetical light-source, each watt would produce 625 lumens. The luminous efficiency of the most efficient white light is about 265 lumens per watt; in other words, if a hypothetical light-source radiated energy of only the visible wave-lengths and in proportions to produce the sensation of white, each watt would produce 265 lumens. If such a white light were obtained by pure temperature radiation—that is, by a normal radiator at a temperature of 10,000°F., which is impracticable at present—the luminous efficiency would be about 100 lumens per watt. The normal radiator which emits energy by virtue of its temperature without selectively radiating more or less energy in any part of the spectrum than indicated by the theoretical radiation laws is called a "black-body" or normal radiator. Modern illuminants have luminous efficiencies ranging from 5 to 30 lumens per watt, so it is seen that much is to be done before the limiting efficiencies are reached.
The amount of light obtained from various gas-burners for each cubic foot of gas consumed per hour varies for open gas-flames from 5 to 30 lumens; for Argand burners from 35 to 40 lumens; for regenerative lamps from 50 to 75 lumens; and for gas-mantles from 200 to 250 lumens.
In the development of light-sources, of course, any harmful effects of gases formed by burning or chemical action must be avoided. Some of the fumes from arcs are harmful, but no commercial arc appears to be dangerous when used as it is intended to be used. Gas-burners rob the atmosphere of oxygen and vitiate it with gases, which, however, are harmless if combustion is complete. That adequate ventilation is necessary where oxygen is being consumed is evident from the data presented by authorities on hygiene. A standard candle when burning vitiates the air in a room almost as much as an adult person. An ordinary kerosene lamp vitiates the atmosphere as much as a half-dozen persons. An ordinary single mantle burner causes as much vitiation as two or three persons.
In order to obtain a bird's-eye view of progress in light-production, the following table of relative luminous efficiencies of several light-sources is given in round numbers. These efficiencies are in terms of the most efficient (yellow-green) light.
 Efficiency
in per cent.
Sperm-candle0.02
Open gas-flame.04
Incandescent gas-mantle.19
Carbon filament lamp.05
Vacuum Mazda lamp1.3
Gas-filled Mazda lamp2 to 3
Arc-lamps2 to 7
White light radiated by "black-body"16
Most efficient white light40
Firefly95
Most efficient light (yellow-green)100
The luminous efficiency of a light-source is distinguished from that of a lamp. The former is the ratio of the light produced to the amount of energy radiated by the light-source. The latter is the ratio of the light produced to the total amount of energy consumed by the device. In other words, the luminous efficiency of a lamp is less than that of the light-source because the consumption of energy in other parts of the lamp besides the light-source are taken into account. These additional losses are appreciable in the mechanisms of arc-lamps but are almost negligible in vacuum incandescent filament lamps. They are unknown for the firefly, so that its luminous efficiency only as a light-source can be determined. Its efficiency as a lighting-plant may be and perhaps is rather low.

THE CEREMONIAL USE OF LIGHT

THE CEREMONIAL USE OF LIGHT

Inasmuch as the symbolisms and ceremonial uses of light originated in the childhood of the human race and were nourished throughout the age of mythology, the early light-sources are associated more with this phase of artificial light than modern ones. For this reason it appears appropriate to present this discussion before entering into the later stages of the development and utilization of artificial light. Furthermore, many of the traditions of lighting at the present time are survivors of the early ages. Lighting-fixtures show the influence of this byway of lighting, and in those cases where the ceremonial use of light has survived to the present time, modern light-sources cannot be employed wisely in replacing more primitive ones without consideration of the origin and existence of the customs. In fact, candles are likely to be used for hundreds of years to come, owing to the sentiment connected with them and to the established customs founded upon centuries of traditional use.
Doubtless, the sun as a source of heat and light and of the blessings which these bring to earth, is responsible largely for the divine significance bestowed upon light. Darkness very deservingly acquired many uncomplimentary attributes, for danger lurked behind its veil and it was the suitable abode of evil spirits. It harbored all that was the antithesis of goodness, happiness, and security. Light naturally became sacred, life-giving, and symbolic of divine presence. Fire was to primitive beings the most impressive phenomenon over which they had any control, and it was sufficiently mysterious in its operation to warrant a connection with the supernatural. Thus it was very natural that these earlier beings worshiped it as representing divine presence. The sun, as Ra, was one of the chief gods of the ancient Egyptians; and the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the ancient Greeks, and many other early peoples gave a high place to this deity. Among simpler races the sun was often the sole object of worship, and those peoples who worship Light as the god of all, in a sense are not far afield. Fire-worshipers generally considered fire as the purest representation of heavenly fire, the origin of everything that lives.
Light was considered such a blessing that lamps were buried with the dead in order that spirits should be able to have it in the next world. This custom has prevailed widely but the fact that the lamps were unlighted indicates that only the material aspect was considered. It is interesting to note that the lamps and other light-sources in pagan temples and religious processions were not symbolical but were offerings to the gods. In later centuries a deeper symbolical meaning became attached to light and burning lamps were placed upon the tombs of important personages. The burying of lamps with the dead appears to have originated in Asia. The Phœnicians and Romans apparently continued the custom, but no traces of it have been found in Greece and Egypt.
Fire and light have been closely associated in various religious creeds and their ceremonies. The Hindu festival in honor of the goddess of prosperity is attended by the burning of many lamps in the temples and homes. The Jewish synagogues have their eternal lamps and in their rituals fire and light have played prominent rôles. The devout Brahman maintains a fire on the hearth and worships it as omniscient and divine. He expects a brand from this to be used to light his funeral pyre, whose fire and light will make his spirit fit to enter his heavenly abode. He keeps a fire burning on the altar, worships Agni, the god of fire, and makes fire sacrifices on various occasions such as betrothals and marriages. To the Mohammedans lighted lamps symbolize holy places, and the Kaaba at Mecca, which contains a black stone supposed to have been brought from heaven, is illuminated by thousands of lamps. Many of the uses to which light was put in ancient times indicate its rarity and sacred nature. Doubtless, the increasing use of artificial light at festivals and celebrations of the present time is partly the result of lingering customs of bygone centuries and partly due to a recognition of an innate appeal or attribute of light. Certainly nothing is more generally appropriate in representing joy and prosperity.
Throughout all countries ancient races had woven natural light and fire into their rites and customs, so it became a natural step to utilize artificial light and fire in the same manner. It would be tedious and monotonous to survey the vast field of ancient worship of light, for the underlying ideas are generally similar. The mythology of the Greeks is illustrative of the importance attached to fire and light by the cultivated peoples of ancient times. The myth of Prometheus emphasizes the fact that in those remote periods fire and light were regarded as of prime importance. According to this myth, fire and light were contained in heaven and great cunning and daring were necessary in order to obtain it. Prometheus stole this heavenly fire, for which act he was chained to the mountain and made to suffer. The Greeks mark this event as the beginning of human civilization. All arts are traced to Prometheus, and all earthly woe likewise. As past history is surveyed it appears natural to think of scientific men who have become martyrs to the quest of hidden secrets. They have made great sacrifices for the future benefit of civilization and not a few of them have endured persecution even in recent times. The Greeks recognized that a new era began with the acquisition of artificial light. Its divine nature was recognized and it became a phenomenon for worship and a means for representing divine presence. The origin of fire and light made them holy. The fire on the altar took its place in religious rites and there evolved many ceremonial uses of lamps, candles, and fire.
The Greeks and Romans burned sacred lamps in the temples and utilized light and fire in many ceremonies. The torch-race, in which young men ran with lighted torches, the winner being the one who reached the goal first with his torch still alight, originated in a Grecian ceremony of lighting the sacred fire. There are many references in ancient Roman and Grecian literature to sacred lamps burning day and night in sanctuaries and before statues of gods and heroes. On birthdays and festivals the houses of the Romans were specially ornamented with burning lamps. The Vestal Virgins in Rome maintained the sacred fire which had been brought by fugitives from Troy. In ancient Rome when the fire in the Temple of Vesta became extinguished, it was rekindled by the rubbing of a piece of wood upon another until fire was obtained. This was carried into the temple by the Vestal Virgin and the sacred fire was rekindled. The fire produced in this manner, for some reason, was considered holy.
The early peoples displayed many lamps on feast-days and an example of extravagance in this respect is an occasion when King Constantine commanded that the entire city of Constantinople be illuminated by wax-candles on Christmas Eve. Candelabra, of the form of the branching tree, were commonly in use in the Roman temples.
The ceremonial use of light in the Christian church evolved both from adaptations of pagan customs and of the natural symbolisms of fire and light. However, these acquired a deeper meaning in Christianity than in early times because they were primarily visible representations or manifestations of the divine presence. The Bible contains many references to the importance and symbolisms of light and fire. According to the First Book of Moses, the achievement of the Creator immediately following the creation of "the heavens and the earth" was the creation of light. The word "light" is the forty-sixth word in Genesis. Christ is "the true light" and Christians are "children of light" in war against the evil "powers of darkness." When St. Paul was converted "there shined about him a great light from heaven." The impressiveness and symbolism of fire and light are testified to in many biblical expressions. Christ stands "in the midst of seven candle-sticks" with "his eyes as a flame of fire." When the Holy Ghost appeared before the apostles "there appeared unto them cloven tongues of fire." When St. Paul was preaching the gospel of Christ at Alexandria "there were many lights" suggesting a festive illumination.
According to the Bible, the perpetual fire which came originally from heaven was to be kept burning on the altar. It was holy and those whose duty it was to keep it burning were guilty of a grave offense if they allowed it to be extinguished. If human hands were permitted to kindle it, punishment was meted out. The two sons of Aaron who "offered strange fire before the Lord" were devoured by "fire from the Lord." The seven-branched candlestick was lighted eternally and these burning light-sources were necessary accompaniments of worship.
The countless ceremonial uses of fire and light which had evolved in the past centuries were bound to influence the rites and customs of the Christian church. The festive illumination of pagan temples in honor of gods was carried over into the Christian era. The Christmas tree of to-day is incomplete without its many lights. Its illumination is a homage of light to the source of light. The celebration of Easter in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem is a typical example of fire-worship retained from ancient times. At the climax of the services comes the descent of the Holy Fire. The central candelabra suddenly becomes ablaze and the worshipers, each of whom carries a wax taper, light their candles therefrom and rush through the streets. The fire is considered to be of divine origin and is a symbol of resurrection. The custom is similar in meaning to the light which in older times was maintained before gods.
During the first two or three centuries of the Christian era the ceremonial use of light does not appear to have been very extensive. Writings of the period contain statements which appear to ridicule this use to some extent. For example, one writer of the second century states that "On days of rejoicing ... we do not encroach upon daylight with lamps." Another, in the fourth century, refers with sarcasm to the "heathen practice" in this manner: "They kindle lights as though to one who is in darkness. Can he be thought sane who offers the light of lamps and candles to the Author and Giver of all light?"
That candles were lighted in cemeteries is evidenced by an edict which forbade their use during the day. Lamps of the early centuries of the Christian era have been found in the catacombs of Rome which are thought to have been ceremonial lamps, for they were not buried with the dead. They were found only in niches in the walls. During these same centuries elaborate candelabra containing hundreds of candles were kept burning before the tombs of saints. Notwithstanding the doubt that exists as to the extent of ceremonial lighting in the early centuries of the Christian era, it is certain that by the beginning of the fifth century the ceremonial use of light in the Christian church had become very extensive and firmly established. That this is true and that there were still some objections is indicated by many controversies. Some thought that lamps before tombs were ensigns of idolatry and others felt that no harm was done if religious people thus tried to honor martyrs and saints. Some early writings convey the idea that the ritualistic use of lights in the church arose from the retention of lights necessary at nocturnal services after the hours of worship had been changed to daytime.
Passing beyond the early controversial period, the ceremonial use of light is everywhere in evidence at ordinary church services. On special occasions such as funerals, baptisms, and marriages, elaborate altar-lighting was customary. The gorgeous candelabra and the eternal lamp are noted in many writings. Early in the fifth century the pope ordered that candles be blessed and provided rituals for this ceremony. Shortly after this the Feast of Purification of the Virgin was inaugurated and it became known as Candlemas because on this day the candles for the entire year were blessed. However, it appears that the blessing of candles was not carried out in all churches. Altar lights were not generally used until the thirteenth century. They were originally the seven candles carried by church officials and placed near the altar.
The custom of placing lighted lamps before the tombs of martyrs was gradually extended to the placing of such lamps before various objects of a sacred or divine relation. Finally certain light-sources themselves became objects of worship and were surrounded by other lamps, and the symbolisms of light grew apace. A bishop in the sixth century heralded the triple offering to God represented by the burning wax-candle. He pointed out that the rush-wick developed from pure water; that the wax was the product of virgin bees; and that the flame was sent from heaven. Each of these, he was certain, was an offering acceptable to God. Wax-candles became associated chiefly with religious ceremonies. The wax later became symbolic of the Blessed Virgin and of the body of Christ. The wick was symbolical of Christ's soul, the flame represented his divine character, and the burning candle thus became symbolical of his death. The lamp, lantern, and taper are frequently symbols of piety, heavenly wisdom, or spiritual light. Fire and flames are emblems of zeal and fervor or of the sufferings of martyrdom and the flaming heart symbolizes fervent piety and spiritual or divine love.
By the time the Middle Ages were reached the ceremonial uses of light became very complex, but for the Roman Catholic Church they may be divided into three general groups: (1) They were symbolical of God's presence or of the effect of his presence; of Christ or of "the children of light"; or of joy and content at festivals. (2) They may be offered in fulfillment of a religious vow; that is, as an act of worship. (3) They may possess certain divine power because of their being blessed by the church, and therefore may be helpful to soul and body. The three conceptions are indicated in the prayers offered at the blessing of the candles on Candlemas as follows: (1) "O holy Lord ... who ... by thy command didst cause this liquid to come by the labor of bees to the perfection of wax, ... we beseech thee ... to bless and sanctify these candles for the use of men, and the health of bodies and souls...." (2) "...these candles, which we thy servants desire to carry lighted to magnify thy name; that by offering them to thee, being worthily inflamed with the holy fire of thy most sweet charity, we may deserve...." (3) "O Lord Jesus Christ, the true light, ... mercifully grant, that as these lights enkindled with visible fire dispel nocturnal darkness, so our hearts illuminated by visible fire," etc.
In general, the ceremonial uses of lights in this church were originated as a forceful representation of Christ and of salvation. On the eve of Easter a new fire, emblematic of the arisen Christ, is kindled, and all candles throughout the year are lighted from this. During the service of Holy Week thirteen lighted candles are placed before the altar and as the penitential songs are sung they are extinguished one by one. When but one remains burning it is carried behind the altar, thus symbolizing the last days of Christ on earth. It is said that this ceremony has been traced to the eighth century. On Easter Eve, after the new fire is lighted and blessed, certain ceremonies of light symbolize the resurrection of Christ. From this new fire three candles are lighted and from these the Paschal Candle. The origin of the latter is uncertain, but it symbolizes a victorious Christ. From it all the ceremonial lights of the church are lighted and they thereby are emblematic of the presence of the light of Christ.
Many interesting ceremonial uses may be traced out, but space permits a glimpse of only a few. At baptismal services the paschal candle is dipped into the water so that the latter will be effective as a regenerative element. The baptized child is reborn as a child of light. Lighted candles are placed in the hands of the baptized persons or of their god-parents. Those about to take vows carry lights before the church official and the same idea is attached to the custom of carrying or of holding lights on other occasions such as weddings and first communion. Lights are placed around the bodies of the dead and are carried at the funeral. They not only protect the dead from the powers of darkness but they symbolize the dead as still living in the light of Christ. The use of lighted candles around bodies of the dead still survives to some extent among Protestants, but their significance has been lost sight of. Even in the eighteenth century funerals in England were accompanied by lighted tapers, but the carrying of lights in other processions appears to have ceased with the Reformation. In some parts of Scotland it is still the custom to place two lighted candles on a table beside a corpse on the day of the funeral.
With the importance of light in the ritual of the church it is not surprising that the extinction of lights is a part of the ceremony of excommunication. Such a ceremony is described in an early writing thus: "Twelve priests should stand about the bishop, holding in their hands lighted torches, which at the conclusion of the anathema or excommunication they should cast down and trample under foot." When the excommunicant is reinstated, a lighted candle is placed in his hands as a symbol of reconciliation. These and many other ceremonial uses of light have been and are practised, but they are not always mandatory. Furthermore, the customs have varied from time to time, but the few which have been touched upon illustrate the impressive part that light has played in religious services.
During the Reformation the ceremonial use of lights was greatly altered and was abolished in the Protestant churches as a relic of superstition and papal authority. In the Lutheran churches ceremonial lights were largely retained, in the Church of England they have been subjected to many changes largely through the edicts of the rulers. In the latter church many controversies were waged over ceremonial lights and their use has been among the indictments of a number of officials of the church in impeachment cases before the House of Commons. Many uses of light in religious ceremonies were revived in cathedrals after the Restoration and they became wide-spread in England in the nineteenth century. As late as 1889 the Archbishop of Canterbury ruled that certain ceremonial candles were lawful according to the Prayer-Book of Edward VI, but the whole question was left open and unsettled.
These byways of artificial light are complex and fascinating because their study leads into many channels and far into the obscurity of the childhood of the human race. A glimpse of them is important in a survey of the influence of artificial light upon the progress of civilization because in these usages the innate and acquired impressiveness of light is encountered. Although many ceremonial uses of light remain, it is doubtful if their significance and especially their origin are appreciated by most persons. Nevertheless, no more interesting phase of artificial light is encountered than this, which reaches to the foundation of civilization.